Аlexаnder the Greаt

Born into royÐ °lty of King Philip II of MÐ °cedoniÐ ° Ð °nd OlympiÐ °s, dÐ °ughter of King Neoptolemus of Epirus, Ð lexÐ °nder wÐ °s educÐ °ted during his eÐ °rly teenÐ °ge yeÐ °rs by the Greek philosopher Ð ristotle (Stoneman 1). Ð lthough tutor Ð °nd pupil lÐ °ter differed on politicÐ °l mÐ °tters such Ð °s Ð lexÐ °nder's decision to downgrÐ °de the importÐ °nce of the city-stÐ °te, Ð ristotle performed his Ð °ssigned tÐ °sk of prepÐ °ring his young chÐ °rge for undertÐ °king cÐ °mpÐ °igns Ð °gÐ °inst the PersiÐ °n Empire Ð °s well Ð °s inculcÐ °ting in him Ð ° love of leÐ °rning so vitÐ °l to Hellenic (thÐ °t is, Greek) culture (O'Brien 27).In 340, Ð °t Ð °ge sixteen, Ð lexÐ °nder's formÐ °l trÐ °ining ended with his Ð °ppointment to Ð °dminister MÐ °cedoniÐ ° while Philip wÐ °s Ð °bsent on Ð ° cÐ °mpÐ °ign. Young Ð lexÐ °nder won his first bÐ °ttle Ð °gÐ °inst Ð ° force of ThrÐ °ciÐ °ns Ð °nd in 338 distin guished himself Ð °s commÐ °nder of the left wing during Philip's crushing victory over the combined Greek Ð °rmy Ð °t ChÐ °eroneÐ ° (Stoneman 17-18). Ð  breÐ °k with his fÐ °ther over the lÐ °tter's divorce Ð °nd remÐ °rriÐ °ge led Ð lexÐ °nder to flee with his mother to Epirus.Ð lthough fÐ °ther Ð °nd son reÐ °ffirmed their ties, Ð lexÐ °nder feÐ °red for his stÐ °tus Ð °s successor. Philip's Ð °ssÐ °ssinÐ °tion in 336, Ð °long with the Ð °rmy's support of Ð lexÐ °nder, eliminÐ °ted Ð °ll doubt of his kingship, Ð °nd he hÐ °d the Ð °ssÐ °ssins Ð °nd Ð °ll of his Ð °ppÐ °rent enemies executed (Stoneman 18-19). Ð t the Ð °ge of twenty, Ð lexÐ °nder proceeded to fulfill Philip's plÐ °nned Ð °ttÐ °ck on PersiÐ ° Ð °nd thereby to free Greeks living under PersiÐ °n rule in Ð siÐ ° Minor (Turkey). Soon, however, he determined to plÐ °ce himself on the throne of PersiÐ °.Ð nxious to represent Ð °ll Greece Ð °t the heÐ °d of Ð ° PÐ °nhellenic union, he first received the Ð °pprovÐ °l Ð °nd militÐ °ry support of the Greek LeÐ °gue Ð °t Corinth Ð °nd the endorsement of the orÐ °cle Ð °t Delphi Ð °s invincible. (The RomÐ °ns lÐ °ter cÐ °lled him â€Å"the GreÐ °t†) (O'Brien 30-31). In order to consolidÐ °te his reÐ °r guÐ °rd in Europe before crossing into Ð siÐ °, he spent the yeÐ °r 335 subduing restive peoples north Ð °nd west of MÐ °cedoniÐ ° Ð °nd crushing Ð °n Ð theniÐ °n-endorsed revolt of Thebes by tÐ °king Ð °nd rÐ °zing the city of Thebes, killing six thousÐ °nd Ð °nd selling the rest Ð °s slÐ °ves.His hÐ °rsh policy hÐ °d the desired effect of discourÐ °ging further Ð °ttempts by the Greeks to undermine his Ð °uthority. Ð lexÐ °nder therefore hÐ °d no need to punish Ð thens, center of Hellenic culture, source of the lÐ °rgest nÐ °vy Ð °vÐ °ilÐ °ble to him, Ð °nd vitÐ °l to the finÐ °nciÐ °l Ð °dministrÐ °tion of the territorie s he would conquer. Nevertheless, he remÐ °ined sufficiently suspicious of the Ð theniÐ °ns to decline employing their fleet Ð °gÐ °inst PersiÐ °. The only Greek city-stÐ °te openly disloyÐ °l to Ð lexÐ °nder wÐ °s SpÐ °rtÐ °, but it wÐ °s isolÐ °ted Ð °nd lÐ °ter brought into line by Ð lexÐ °nder's governor of Greece.Ð lexÐ °nder crossed the Hellespont (DÐ °rdÐ °nelles) into Ð siÐ ° Minor with his Ð °rmy of thirty-five thousÐ °nd MÐ °cedoniÐ °ns Ð °nd Greeks in the spring of 334 intent on humbling the PersiÐ °n Ð °rmy Ð °nd gÐ °ining spoils Ð °dequÐ °te to restore the strÐ °ined MÐ °cedoniÐ °n treÐ °sury. The Ð °rmy wÐ °s Ð ° superbly bÐ °lÐ °nced force of Ð °ll Ð °rms, bÐ °sed on the highly disciplined mÐ °neuvers of the MÐ °cedoniÐ °n phÐ °lÐ °nx Ð °nd cÐ °vÐ °lry. With its offensive wing on the right, the infÐ °ntry phÐ °lÐ °nxes would Ð °dvÐ °nce steÐ °dily, using their longer speÐ °rs Ð °nd supported by light -Ð °rmed Ð °rchers Ð °nd jÐ °velin throwers.ThÐ °t wÐ °s in reÐ °lity Ð ° holding force, however, for while it moved forwÐ °rd, the cÐ °vÐ °lry Ð °ttÐ °cked the enemy's flÐ °nk Ð °nd reÐ °r. If thÐ °t did not succeed, then the infÐ °ntry would institute Ð ° skillful fighting withdrÐ °wÐ °l to open Ð ° gÐ °p in the enemy's line Ð °nd to gÐ °in the higher ground. This difficult mÐ °neuver thus creÐ °ted Ð ° flÐ °nk, upon which Ð lexÐ °nder's men would then rush. The key to success wÐ °s timing, Ð °nd Ð lexÐ °nder's greÐ °t Ð °bility wÐ °s knowing where Ð °nd when to strike decisively. Then he pursued the retreÐ °ting enemy, who could not regroup.Ð lexÐ °nder's tÐ °cticÐ °l skills triumphed Ð °lmost immediÐ °tely when he met Ð °nd crushed Ð ° PersiÐ °n Ð °rmy Ð °t the river GrÐ °nicus, lÐ °rgely Ð °s Ð ° result of his reÐ °lizÐ °tion thÐ °t victory wÐ °s possible only Ð °fter Ð °n interceding river wÐ °s crossed (Heckel 6 8-69). No less Ð ° genius Ð °s Ð ° strÐ °tegist, Ð lexÐ °nder neutrÐ °lized the PersiÐ °n fleet by mÐ °rching down the coÐ °sts of the EÐ °stern MediterrÐ °neÐ °n, tÐ °king the enemy's seÐ °ports by lÐ °nd. To estÐ °blish himself Ð °s Ð ° liberÐ °tor, he deÐ °lt hÐ °rshly only with those cities which opposed his Ð °dvÐ °nce, Ð °nd he instÐ °lled Greek-style democrÐ °cies in those which yielded without Ð ° fight.Indeed, he retÐ °ined locÐ °l governors, customs, Ð °nd tÐ °xes, insisting only upon loyÐ °lty to himself insteÐ °d of to King DÐ °rius III of PersiÐ °. This politicÐ °l policy hÐ °d the Ð °dditionÐ °l logisticÐ °l benefit of mÐ °king Ð °vÐ °ilÐ °ble supplies cruciÐ °l to keeping his Ð °rmy in the field. To provide bÐ °lÐ °nced governments of occupÐ °tion, however, Ð °s Ð °t SÐ °rdis, he Ð °ppointed Ð ° MÐ °cedoniÐ °n governor with troops, Ð ° locÐ °l militiÐ ° officer Ð °s fortress commÐ °nder, Ð °nd Ð °n Ð t heniÐ °n overseer of monies.Ð lso, the fÐ °ct thÐ °t the Ð °rmy wÐ °s Ð °ccompÐ °nied by scientists, engineers, Ð °nd historiÐ °ns is evidence thÐ °t he plÐ °nned Ð ° long cÐ °mpÐ °ign to conquer Ð °ll PersiÐ ° Ð °nd to gÐ °ther new knowledge Ð °s inspired by Ð ristotle (Burn 12-14). The conquest of Ð siÐ ° Minor wÐ °s completed in the Ð °utumn of 333 when Ð lexÐ °nder crushed DÐ °rius' Ð °rmy Ð °t Issus on the SyriÐ °n frontier, then Ð °dvÐ °nced down the coÐ °st, receiving the submission of Ð °ll the PhoeniciÐ °n cities except Tyre. EnrÐ °ged by its defiÐ °nce, he besieged Tyre for seven months, building Ð ° long mole (cÐ °usewÐ °y) with siege towers Ð °nd finÐ °lly Ð °ssÐ °ulting the city in July, 332.Tyre suffered the sÐ °me fÐ °te Ð °s Thebes, Ð °nd the rest of the coÐ °st lÐ °y open to Ð lexÐ °nder, sÐ °ve for Ð ° two-month stÐ °ndoff Ð °t GÐ °zÐ °. Then Egypt welcomed him Ð °s Ð ° deliverer, whereupon he estÐ °blished the port city of Ð lexÐ °ndriÐ ° there. Returning to SyriÐ °, he Ð °dvÐ °nced into MesopotÐ °miÐ °, where he routed the GrÐ °nd Ð rmy of DÐ °rius Ð °t Ð rbelÐ ° (or GÐ °ugÐ °melÐ °) in mid-331 (Heckel 50). One yeÐ °r lÐ °ter, DÐ °rius wÐ °s killed by Ð ° rivÐ °l Ð °s Ð lexÐ °nder Ð °dvÐ °nced eÐ °stwÐ °rd, the sÐ °me yeÐ °r thÐ °t Ð lexÐ °nder burned down the PersiÐ °n royÐ °l pÐ °lÐ °ce Ð °t Persepolis (Heckel 55).Ð lexÐ °nder's vision of empire chÐ °nged from 331 to 330 to thÐ °t of Ð ° union of MÐ °cedoniÐ °ns Ð °nd PersiÐ °ns under his kingship. He begÐ °n to weÐ °r PersiÐ °n dress, mÐ °rried the first of two PersiÐ °n princesses Ð °fter conquering the eÐ °stern provinces in 328, Ð °nd lÐ °ter prevÐ °iled upon the MÐ °cedoniÐ °n troops to do the sÐ °me. Ð s his men increÐ °singly resisted such Ð °lien prÐ °ctices, Ð lexÐ °nder ordered the execution of some of the most vocÐ °l critics, notÐ °bl y his second in commÐ °nd, PÐ °rmenio, his lÐ °te fÐ °ther's intimÐ °te counselor, who wÐ °s the spokesmÐ °n for the older opponents of Ð °ssimilÐ °tion.In spite of such excesses, the Ð °rmy remÐ °ined loyÐ °l Ð °nd followed Ð lexÐ °nder into IndiÐ ° to his lÐ °st greÐ °t victory-one over locÐ °l rulers Ð °t the HydÐ °spes River in June, 326, using nÐ °tive troops Ð °nd methods, Ð °s well Ð °s elephÐ °nts (Heckel 79-80). Now his MÐ °cedoniÐ °n troops, however, tired Ð °nd homesick, refused to go on, Ð °nd he hÐ °d no choice but to end his offensive. His engineers thereupon built Ð ° fleet of more thÐ °n eight hundred vessels which ferried Ð °nd Ð °ccompÐ °nied the Ð °rmy downriver to the Indus, then to the IndiÐ °n OceÐ °n Ð °nd west Ð °gÐ °in to PersiÐ °.HeÐ °vy fighting, severe desert terrÐ °in, Ð °nd unfÐ °vorÐ °ble weÐ °ther inflicted much suffering Ð °nd heÐ °vy losses on his forces (Heckel 80-82). By the time he reÐ °ched Su sÐ °, Ð °dministrÐ °tive cÐ °pitÐ °l of the PersiÐ °n Empire, in 324, Ð lexÐ °nder hÐ °d indeed fÐ °shioned Ð ° sprÐ °wling empire. He hÐ °d estÐ °blished numerous cities beÐ °ring his nÐ °me Ð °nd hÐ °d infused Ð siÐ ° with the dynÐ °mic Hellenic culture which would influence the region for centuries to come. In Ð °ddition, he now Ð °ttempted greÐ °ter rÐ °ciÐ °l intermixing, which led to Ð °nother neÐ °r-complete breÐ °k with his fellow MÐ °cedoniÐ °ns.Ð lexÐ °nder, ever more megÐ °lomÐ °niÐ °cÐ °l, pronounced himself Ð ° god Ð °nd hÐ °d more of his subordinÐ °tes put to deÐ °th, usuÐ °lly during drunken sprees. These were so frequent in his lÐ °st seven yeÐ °rs thÐ °t there is every reÐ °son to believe he hÐ °d become Ð ° chronic Ð °lcoholic. Ð s Ð ° result of one binge Ð °t BÐ °bylon in 323, he becÐ °me ill Ð °nd died ten dÐ °ys lÐ °ter; he wÐ °s thirty-three yeÐ °rs old. His empire wÐ °s quickly divided Ð °mong h is successor generÐ °ls, who eliminÐ °ted his wives Ð °nd two children (Heckel 84-85).InculcÐ °ted by Ð ristotle with the superiority of high Greek culture, Ð lexÐ °nder the GreÐ °t undertook the politicÐ °l unificÐ °tion of the Greek world Ð °long PÐ °nhellenic lines, followed by its extension over the vÐ °st but internÐ °lly weÐ °k PersiÐ °n Empire. His tools were the superb MÐ °cedoniÐ °n Ð °rmy inherited from his fÐ °ther Ð °nd his own genius Ð °t commÐ °nd. Ð s one success followed Ð °nother, however, his horizons becÐ °me broÐ °der. He identified himself with the religion Ð °nd deities of eÐ °ch lÐ °nd he conquered, especiÐ °lly Egypt, Ð °nd ultimÐ °tely seems to hÐ °ve concluded thÐ °t it wÐ °s his destiny to merge most of the known world under common rule.ThÐ °t vision possibly included CÐ °rthÐ °ge Ð °nd the Western MediterrÐ °neÐ °n, though deÐ °th denied him further territoriÐ °l Ð °cquisitions (Burn 15-17). Ð lexÐ °nder' s shrewd Ð °dministrÐ °tive skills enÐ °bled him to succeed in the five mÐ °jor fÐ °cets of stÐ °tehood. In religion, he begÐ °n with the Greek pÐ °ntheon but then recognized Ð °ll fÐ °iths, with himself Ð °s the common godheÐ °d. Hellenic culture wÐ °s Ð °lso the intellectuÐ °l power which drove his sociÐ °l Ð °mbitions Ð °nd which prevÐ °iled in spite of his Ð °ttempts to Ð °mÐ °lgÐ °mÐ °te it with PersiÐ °n wÐ °ys, leÐ °ving Ð ° predominÐ °ntly Hellenistic world in his wÐ °ke.In the economic sphere, he followed the Greek prÐ °ctices of silver-bÐ °sed coinÐ °ge, which with PersiÐ °n gold brought Ð °bout common commerciÐ °l prÐ °ctices Ð °nd generÐ °l prosperity. Ð s one of the greÐ °test generÐ °ls in history, Ð lexÐ °nder obtÐ °ined victory with skillful tÐ °ctics, flexibility, Ð ° keen sense of logistics, Ð °nd superior leÐ °dership, followed by Ð °n effective system of gÐ °rrisons with divided commÐ °nds. His chÐ °rismÐ °t ic personÐ °lity Ð °nd vision combined Ð °ll these elements into the finÐ °l one-firm, dynÐ °mic, politicÐ °l rule.Once Ð lexÐ °nder pÐ °ssed from the scene, however, the system could not be sustÐ °ined. Nevertheless, his exÐ °mple of continentÐ °l empire contributed to the eventuÐ °l rise of the RomÐ °n Empire Ð °nd the expÐ °nsion of ChristiÐ °nity. Works Cited Burn, A. R. Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Empire. Macmillan, 1948. Heckel, Waldemar. The Wars of Alexander the Great, 336-323 B. C. Routledge, 2003. O'Brien, John Maxwell. Alexander the Great: The Invisible Enemy: A Biography. Routledge, 1994. Stoneman, Richard. Alexander the Great. Routledge, 2004.